Sean+O.

Expanding On The "Base-ics" Of DNA
October, 22, 2015 Post 1 By: Sean O'Reilly

__The ATGC's of genetic codding.__ All living creatures from the complex eukaryotes such as ourselves to the basic prokaryotes such as bacteria are comprised of cells. These cells are based around an important structure called DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA's structure is relatively simple. It consists of two sugar phosphate back bones in the shape of a double helix linked together by nitrogenous basses. For the longest time scientist believed that the only basses that could form a functioning strand of DNA were Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). Yet, recent discoveries have proven that there my be other possible functioning basses. = =
 * A Diagram of DNA with its four basses, and sugar phosphate backbone. ||

=Base to Base:= The bases of DNA always pair together in the pattern of (A) with (T) and (G) with (C). Adenine and Guanine are Purines, and as such can only bond with Pyrimidines. Similarly, the bonding points of the varying bases only correspond with their base pair. Scientists have been readily trying to create artificial basses to put in DNA that will still allow it to function.
 * ======DNA's four nitrogenous basses, Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, and Cytosine.====== ||

=Based on Facts:= Some forms of artificial basses have been produced by scientists. Most have only been achieved in test-tubes instead of cells, but two specific samples were created by Romesberg Labs. Dubbed as the X and Y bases or more formally d5SICS and dNaM, these special base pairs were the first to be artificially implanted into an organism. Unfortunately, the Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) bacteria that host the DNA can not survive outside of the lab as they require nutrients that scientists must provide them.

=The mysterious 5fc:= Of the uncommon bases, there is one that is naturally occurring. Discovered in 2011 it is called 5fc and is found primarily in the muscles of mice. Originally believed to be the transition state of Cytosine, this base was later found to be in all tissues of the mouse, but it's rarity made it hard to find. It is used as a means to tell specific portions of DNA to activate at once, and is a result of TET enzymes adding oxygen to methylated DNA. Mentholated DNA is when small methyl particles are attached to a Cytosine base. Scientists are still studding these special basses, and if you would like to know more, see the video, and the links bellow. Right: The 5fc base is found only inside the muscles of mice. || media type="youtube" key="sCr65Vuv93I" width="560" height="315" Further Reading:
 * Left: This is a diagram of the X and Y bases made by Romberg Laboratories.
 * = This is a video describing the new DNA base pair X and Y. ||


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__ Cyclopia __ 11/19/2015 Post: 2  __ (Do Not Read If You Are Squeamish) __ Through the studies of an Australian monk named Gregor Mendel, we have learned that the traits of an organism are controlled by multiple variables in genes. The variations in genes are called alleles. Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive. These recessive traits are canceled out by the presence of their dominant counterparts, and sometimes they are still present but simply repressed. These alleles can control our outward appearance resulting in various phenotypes, but sometimes they can result in terrible defects and disease. One of the most devastating, and terminal deformities that can affect humans is Cyclopia.


 * This is an image of a child born with cyclopia. || This is a compilation of some of the forms of Cycloplia that have occurred in documented history ||

Cyclopia is a recessive disease that affects developing embryos and results in the terrible deformity of the face, and head. As the name would suggests the deformity results in the eyes of the embryo forming as one main eye in the center of the head. Unfortunately, everyone with Cyclopia dies after only a few minutes because the deformity also results in the lack of a mouth or nose. Cases of Cyclopia are extremely rare, but it is believed that it is a result of a recessive allele on the short arm of chromosome 18. It is believed that 1 in 100,000 babies suffer from this birth defect. Some cases of Cyclopia are caused by mutations or issues with the DNA, but it is a rare trait that when acquired, can be passed in to offspring. One case of Cyclopia involved a female infant who was born from a 36-year old woman who had three other normal children. The baby weighed 2910g and lived for only 20 minutes before dying from trouble breathing.




 * The image above depicts an unborn shark with Cyclopia. || The above is a cat that is suffering from Cyclopia. ||

Cyclopia is not a defect suffered only be humans. Many species ranging from sharks to pigs can suffer from the disfigurement, and unlike humans, the Cyclopia allele does not always result in the loss of the mouth or the nose. For more information, view the video below, or visit some of the pages in our “further reading” section.

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 * = This video is a short report on Cyclopia. It shows one of the first major examples to be seen and studied by doctors and scientists. (It is unusually short for this project, but it gets the point across, and I can't stomach watching any more videos.) ||

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 * Further Readings:**
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Synesthesia Post #3 Jan,14,2016 By: Sean O'Reilly

What is Synesthesia?
Have you ever wondered what the colour purple sounds like. Probably not, but believe it or not, some people are actually able to hear colours. these people have a condition called Synesthesia. Synesthesia is a neurological disorder in which one of a persons senses is linked with another. for example, a person with Synesthesia may associate a sound with a colour so that when they see that colour they physically hear the corresponding sound. The name synesthesia comes from the Greek words //Syn// (Together) and //Aisthesis// (Perception). Synesthesia can involve any of the senses. One of the more common versions is the association of numbers and letters with colours. It is estimated that anywhere from 1 in 200 to 1 In 100,000 people have synesthesia. In rare cases, some people have been known to have three senses connected through synesthesia, but this is exceptionally rare. Synesthesia is also unique to each person who experiences it. One person may associate red with the letter “M” while another may associate it with green.

How Does Synesthesia work?
Synesthesia is categorized in two groups. Those who develop it from an accident have what is called “Acquired Synesthesia,” and those who are born with it have “Developmental Synesthesia.” It is theorised that synesthesia is a result of a misconnection in the neurons of the brain bridging two sensory portions of the brain together. This can occur when the brain is repairing itself after being damaged. Studies have shown that the area this bonding most likely occurs in is in the Cerebral Cortex. It is also believed that all babies have bindings between these areas of the brain that are lost as we age. This would mean that adults with synesthesia simply retained the extra bindings.

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 * This is a diagram of a neuron. Neurons like these make up most of the brain and it is through their connections that we are able to think. ||
 * = This is a diagram of the human brain. Shown in colour on the diagram are the areas that register senses.

Affects
====Despite being a condition, synesthesia is not necessarily a disability. It has both its advantages and its disadvantages. The most interesting positive affect that synesthesia can have on people is that it can make them more creative. A person with synesthesia is able to make connections between two things that otherwise wouldn’t even be considered by a normal person. This means that they are able to create metaphors and similes in writing with ease. It is theorised that many great writers had synesthesia including Shakespeare, (Although this cannot be proven). There are also many negative side effects caused by synesthesia. One side effect being that some stimuli can be painful or unpleasant to the person resulting in a bias against certain colours and sounds. It can also cause problems with math as the association of colours and numbers can result in confusion.====

Diagnosis
There is no set way of diagnosing synesthesia, but there are a few symptoms that are agreed upon. People with synesthesia have no control over it. It is also speculated that they physically feel, see, hear, and taste their hallucinations as opposed to experiencing them mentally. Synesthesia will always be consistent, meaning that the sense experienced must always occur with the same trigger, and they must be simple reactions. A colour can cause a person to hear a sound, but not an orchestra, and a sound can prompt lines or spots of a colour, but not a person or complex object. The effects may also cause an emotional reaction such as pleasure or fear.

The Test
There is a test you can preform to see if you have Synesthesia. (This test is by no means an actual form of diagnosis and any results should not be used as an actual medical opinion.)To take the test, you must first read aloud the numbers from 1 to 10, or have someone read them to you if you are being tested. As each number is being read, write down what colour they make you think of. Now wait a week and preform the test again, only this time, read the numbers out of order. Compare the first results with the second and if the same colours have been given to the same numbers both times, you might have synesthesia.

Fun Facts
media type="youtube" key="rkRbebvoYqI" height="336" width="596" align="center"
 * The famous physicist Richard Feynman had synesthesia.
 * Females and left-handed people are more likely to have synesthesia.
 * People who associate colour with numbers will be unaffected by roman numerals.
 * This is a picture of Richard Feynman. He was a famous physicist who had synesthesia. ||
 * This image symbolizes the ability of a person with synesthesia to have a scent triggered by a sound. the ability to hypothetically smell music. ||
 * This is a brief video that does an excellent job at explaining what synesthesia is. While watching this video I found myself surprised, even after all of the research I did while creating this entry. I highly recommend you watch it. ||

Sources Cited
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